positivism realism interpretivism and pragmatism

Hypatia, 6, 821. 2023, https://www.paperdue.com/essay/positivism-vs-interpretivism-research-essay-2176767, Philosophy He also emphasizes that the audience is more than a passive recipient. Hoch C. 2006. They are what help to shape the worldview of the researcher. While framing a conception's meaning in terms of conceivable tests, Peirce emphasized that, since a conception is general, its meaning, its intellectual purport, equates to its acceptance's implications for general practice, rather than to any definite set of real effects (or test results); a conception's clarified meaning points toward its conceivable verifications, but the outcomes are not meanings, but individual upshots. But other researchers adopted different philosophies, such as realism and pragmatism, and thus determined that a leaders effectiveness will depend on the environment in which he is situated (Northouse, 2015). In the 20th century, the movements of logical positivism and ordinary language philosophy have similarities with pragmatism. However, most empiricists like Locke believed that some (few) things could be known with certainty, like shape and color, even if other properties of things could not be known. A moral question is a question not of what sensibly exists, but of what is good, or would be good if it did exist. James' metaphysical position however, leaves open the possibility that the ontological claims of religions may be true. When one considers the many aspects of one's "inner life," it becomes clear that most, if not all of them are based upon some philosophical conception. Interpretivism is in direct opposition to positivism; it originated from principles developed by Kant and values subjectivity. Electronic Inspiration LLC. Peirce, C.S. In a conversation: Realism is about the beliefs you hold. On the contrary, by identifying and defining ones assumptions, the researcher establishes a base of credibility for his own research (Saunders et al., 2009). The paper will first contextualize the painting, trying to situated in history and establish a historical, Philosophy Matrix II James and Dewey were empirical thinkers in the most straightforward fashion: experience is the ultimate test and experience is what needs to be explained. Psychologists have long known that individuals, who have a strong sense of their life's purpose, as well as a spiritual, religious, or ethical viewpoint, tend to live longer, healthier lives. It is important to consider the underlying ideas and propositions of ones research philosophy because by engaging in research, one creates new knowledgeand ones assumptions and beliefs about how to do that can shape the outcomes associated with the research. [citation needed]. It is vital to explore the concept of positivism as it is widely applied as a source of knowledge or as an approach towards conducting research. Axiology is the study of the nature of values. The pluralist worldview holds that diverse views are helpful to the field; unificationists hold that fragmentation of views prevents the field from advancing in a meaningful and coherently scientific manner (Saunders et al., 2009). Paper 71. Many scholars argue that a Hypatia, 19, 118113. The two paradigms share an orientation towards understanding, but there is an important difference: In interpretivism, understanding is seen as a value of its own; in pragmatism it is seen as instrumental in relation to the change of existence (Dewey, 1931). Warrantability depends on whether the statement to be analyzed is logical, semantic, or empirical. Positivism, interpretivism and realism give different answers to the nature of scientific knowledge and whether or not it is applicable to societies. For example, if humans commonly perceive the ocean as beautiful then the ocean is beautiful. "Residues of foundationalism in Classical Pragmatism.". "[15]:40. 2005. Does a belief only become true when it succeeds in this struggle? An anthology published by the MIT Press titled Pragmatic Bioethics included the responses of philosophers to that debate, including Micah Hester, Griffin Trotter and others many of whom developed their own theories based on the work of Dewey, Peirce, Royce and others. He stressed the need for meaningful labor and a conception of education that viewed it not as a preparation for life but as life itself.[35]. It is not expected that any researcher ever sets out to conduct research without a set of assumptions. Where are all the pragmatists feminists? Positivism and post-positivism are both very important research paradigms. Philosophy Analyzing Rembrandt the Following Paper Is, Philosophy Matrix II Ancient Quest for Truth, Philosophy of Education Fusing Humanistic, Positivism Vs Interpretivism in Research Essay. Stephen Toulmin's The Uses of Argument inspired scholars in informal logic and rhetoric studies (although it is an epistemological work). The study will examine the concept of interpretivism, positivism phenomenology and pragmatism. Haack, Susan & Lane, Robert, Eds. [27], In reality, James asserts, the theory is a great deal more subtle. Epistemology is the study of knowledge or how one comes to know things. Schiller says the truth is that which "works." Each research philosophy comes with its own set of underlying ideas and propositions and has its own strengths and weaknesses, pros and cons. In 1878, Peirce described it in his pragmatic maxim: "Consider the practical effects of the objects of your conception. He is treated as one who believes in calling everything true which, if it were true, would be pleasant. Bittle argued there are also some statements that cannot be judged on human welfare at all. Indeed, it may be said that if two apparently different definitions of the reality before us should have identical consequences, those two definitions would really be identical definitions, made delusively to appear different merely by the different verbiage in which they are expressed.See "Illustrations of the Logic of Science," by C.S. In it, Schiller argues for a middle ground between materialism and absolute metaphysics. The influence of pragmatism on these writers is mostly limited to the incorporation of the pragmatic maxim into their epistemology. the good reasons approach. WebYour research philosophy can be pragmatism, positivism, realism or interpretivism as discussed below. Reflexivity is what enables one to identify and assess the underlying ideas and propositions shaping ones worldview and how they might affect ones research. In this sequel, Logic for Use, Schiller attempted to construct a new logic to replace the formal logic that he had criticized in Formal Logic. seeks to apply pragmatist thinking in a decision-theoretic perspective. Wherever a desired result is achieved by the co-operation of many independent persons, its existence as a fact is a pure consequence of the precursive faith in one another of those immediately concerned. However, it also means that the knowledge is going to be limited and somewhat narrower than the kind ofphilosophy are that it supports identifying a research problem and posing a research question. Inspired by the work of Quine and Sellars, a brand of pragmatism known sometimes as neopragmatism gained influence through Richard Rorty, the most influential of the late 20th century pragmatists along with Hilary Putnam and Robert Brandom. William James' contribution to ethics, as laid out in his essay The Will to Believe has often been misunderstood as a plea for relativism or irrationality. A few of the various but often interrelated positions characteristic of philosophers working from a pragmatist approach include: Dewey in The Quest for Certainty criticized what he called "the philosophical fallacy": Philosophers often take categories (such as the mental and the physical) for granted because they don't realize that these are nominal concepts that were invented to help solve specific problems. Bartle, John R. and Shields, Patricia M., "Applying Pragmatism to Public Budgeting and Financial Management" (2008). AI: Using standards to mitigate risks. The reasons behind philosophical classifications of the study need to This divergence may occur either in their philosophical methodology (many of them are loyal to the analytic tradition) or in conceptual formation: for example, conceptual pragmatist C.I. Lewis was very critical of Dewey; neopragmatist Richard Rorty disliked Peirce. [87][88] In addition, the ideas of Dewey, Mead, and James are consistent with many feminist tenets. [90] He argued that, in William James's pragmatism, truth is entirely subjective and is not the widely accepted definition of truth, which is correspondence to reality. Primary texts The views of positivism changed in the mid-20th century and acquired a new perspective called post-positivism which add that although reality is real, and Truth is universal, one cannot directly access either. Pragmatists who work in these fields share a common inspiration, but their work is diverse and there are no received views. The core idea of pragmatism, that beliefs are guides to actions and should be judged against the outcomes rather than abstract principles, dominated American thinking during the period of economic and political growth from which the USA emerged as a world power. How Worldviews of Research Influenced Business Research. "Pragmatism as a philosophy of the social sciences.". Many scholars argue that a great deal of sociological research contains elements of all three (Suppe, 1984; Bickhard, 1992; Hibberd, 2010). Howard-Watkins, Demetria C., "The Austin, Texas African-American Quality of Life Initiative as a, Johnson, Timothy Lee, "The Downtown Austin Planning Process as a. Seigfried, C.H. Pragmatists disagree over whether philosophers ought to adopt a quietist or a naturalist stance toward the mind-body problem. Evans, Karen. [24] Doubt, like belief, requires justification. (2001). Public administrators are also responsible for the day-to-day work with citizens. The process used to collect information and data for the purpose of making business decisions. Miller[68] and Shields[69][70] also responded. [28] Are beliefs dispositions which qualify as true or false depending on how helpful they prove in inquiry and in action? The intersection of pragmatism and feminism. He emphasizes that works of art are complex and difficult to fathom, and that no determinate interpretation can be given. (2006). An example of pragmatic is a situation solved entirely by logic and reason. Web.18 January. Important analytic pragmatists include early Richard Rorty (who was the first to develop neopragmatist philosophy in his Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (1979),[37] Hilary Putnam, W.V.O. Quine, and Donald Davidson. Franciscan monk Celestine Bittle presented multiple criticisms of pragmatism in his 1936 book Reality and the Mind: Epistemology. In 1868,[16] C.S. In James's pragmatism nothing practical or useful is held to be necessarily true nor is anything which helps to survive merely in the short term. A recognize the need, Berkley stated that because the senses were potentially faulty, everyone's sense perceptions and thus everyone's 'truth' was unique and variable. Is it only in the struggle of intelligent organisms with the surrounding environment that beliefs acquire meaning? "Upgrade or a different animal altogether? Many of James' best-turned phrases"truth's cash value"[25] and "the true is only the expedient in our way of thinking" [26]were taken out of context and caricatured in contemporary literature as representing the view where any idea with practical utility is true. Understanding ones own beliefs, assumptions and values, however, depends upon the possession of the skill of reflexivity (Pillow, 2003). Use the matrix to analyze Plato and Aristotle's theory of knowledge and apply both to current day practices. C.S. Peirce developed multiple methods for doing formal logic. Another development is the cooperation of logical positivism and pragmatism in the works of Charles W. Morris and Rudolf Carnap. Peirce developed the idea that inquiry depends on real doubt, not mere verbal or hyperbolic doubt,[11] and said that, in order to understand a conception in a fruitful way, "Consider the practical effects of the objects of your conception. Dewey's treatment of art was a move away from the transcendental approach to aesthetics in the wake of Immanuel Kant who emphasized the unique character of art and the disinterested nature of aesthetic appreciation. Jane Addams social thought as a model for a pragmatist-feminist communitarianism. W.V. Criticizes Rorty's and Posner's legal theories as "almost pragmatism", A student of Rorty, has developed a complex analytic version of pragmatism in works such as. Applied Research Projects. Quine, instrumental in bringing naturalized epistemology back into favor with his essay "Epistemology Naturalized",[20] also criticized "traditional" epistemology and its "Cartesian dream" of absolute certainty. In this chapter, the reseacher has presented a brief review of the different research philosophies; positivism, interpretivism, and realism (Fisher, 2007), the philosophy that has adopted for the current research, the different research approaches; qualitative, quantitative and mixed-method and the approach adopted for the research. Metaphilosophy, 32, 279292. Positivism (Quantitative) Realism, objectivity, quantification 2. Miller, Hugh. "On Hugh T. Miller on 'Why old pragmatism needs an upgrade. Its origins are often attributed to the philosophers Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, and John Dewey. Behaviorism and functionalism in psychology and sociology also have ties to pragmatism, which is not surprising considering that James and Dewey were both scholars of psychology and that Mead became a sociologist. The other is reductionism, the theory that each meaningful statement gets its meaning from some logical construction of terms which refers exclusively to immediate experience. Improving project performance through. One is the distinction between analytic statements (tautologies and contradictions) whose truth (or falsehood) is a function of the meanings of the words in the statement ('all bachelors are unmarried'), and synthetic statements, whose truth (or falsehood) is a function of (contingent) states of affairs. What is the difference between pragmatics and positivism? The painting was painted by Rembrandt van Rijn in 1653. According to the words of Ryan (2018), the implication of positivism research philosophy and helps the researcher to gain sustainable information about the research topic that helps them to identify the importance of expert systems to enhance the decision-making ability of a human expert. Ontology is the study of the nature of being. (1868) "Questions Concerning Certain Faculties Claimed for Man", Kasser, Jeff (1998), "Peirce's Supposed Psychologism" in, Peirce held that (philosophical) logic is a. Peirce (1902), The Carnegie Institute Application, Memoir 10, MS L75.361-2. [96] Rorty's early analytic work, however, differs notably from his later work which some, including Rorty, consider to be closer to literary criticism than to philosophy, and which attracts the brunt of criticism from his detractors. Suggested dissertation topics and samples in African philosophy and Sociology? For other uses, see, Anti-reification of concepts and theories, Reconciliation of anti-skepticism and fallibilism. James, William (1898), "Philosophical Conceptions and Practical Results", delivered before the Philosophical Union of the University of California at Berkeley, August 26, 1898, and first printed in the, In addition to James's lectures and publications on pragmatist ideas (, Peirce, C.S., "The Founding of Pragmatism", manuscript written 1906, published in, Shook, John (undated), "The Metaphysical Club", the. Neopragmatist thinkers who are more loyal to classical pragmatism include Sidney Hook and Susan Haack (known for the theory of foundherentism). Feminists now consider pragmatism's greatest strength to be the very features that led to its decline. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press; Seigfried, C.H. Peirce, "A Definition of Pragmatism" (paper as titled by Menand in, John Dewey, "Three Independent factors in Morals" (lecture published as paper). In the first column, using the readings about Plato's search for truth and his theories of knowledge, discuss how contemporary people may be living in a cave and which steps, based on Plato's model of the Divided Line, will be necessary for, By "personal" and "social" goals, I meant the achievement of ideals set by the individual for himself/herself and for the society in general, respectively. Transactions of the Charles S. Peirce Society, 35, 328344. [90] With truth reduced essentially to what is good, it is no longer an object of the intellect. Usually, pragmatism was put forth to correct metaphysical doctrines or to construct empirically verifiable ones rather than to provide a wholesale rejection. As such, pragmatism is not antithetical to religion but it is not an apologetic for faith either. [91]:17[92]:120124 Hilary Putnam later argued that Russell "presented a mere caricature" of James's views[91]:17 and a "misreading of James",[91]:20 while Tom Burke argued at length that Russell presented "a skewed characterization of Dewey's point of view". Managers want statistical inputs for problem-solving, and they rely on quantitative research to facilitate this process. Nicholas Rescher, "Methodological Pragmatism", foreword for Dewey 1929 in the 1988 edition, p. xiii, Douglas Browning et al. If so, how is it related to interpretivism? [40] Another example is Mark Johnson whose embodied philosophy[41] shares its psychologism, direct realism and anti-cartesianism with pragmatism. We use cookies to ensure that we give you the best experience on our website. Manuscript "A Sketch of Logical Critics". What is the difference between positivism and interpretivism in sociology? Both John Dewey in Experience and Nature (1929) and, half a century later, Richard Rorty in his Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (1979) argued that much of the debate about the relation of the mind to the body results from conceptual confusions. So, interpretivists argue that if we want to understand social action, we need to look into the reasons and meanings which that action has for people (Marsh, 2002). Theres an epistemological approach called pragmatism, or realism, On the other hand, abstract metaphysics cannot make sense of the "lower" aspects of our world (e.g. Peirce, known chiefly for. What is the difference between pragmatism and positivism? Depending on the type of research topic which philosophy will be adopted in the research? Peirce wrote that "from this definition, pragmatism is scarce more than a corollary; so that I am disposed to think of him as the grandfather of pragmatism". Schiller sought to undermine the very possibility of formal logic, by showing that words only had meaning when used in context. Applied Research Projects. However, similarly, one's success in achieving his/her aspirations becomes irrelevant if these achievements do not benefit society. Art, for Dewey, is or should be a part of everyone's creative lives and not just the privilege of a select group of artists. 1998; Rescher, SEP. Nungesser, Frithjof. I have always fathered my pragmaticism (as I have called it since James and Schiller made the word [pragmatism] imply "the will to believe," the mutability of truth, the soundness of Zeno's refutation of motion, and pluralism generally), upon Kant, Berkeley, and Leibniz. There are several peer-reviewed journals dedicated to pragmatism, for example, This article is about the philosophical movement. For instance, positivists lean toward statistical data and quantitative research because this offers an objective and verifiable conclusion. Contemporary pragmatism may be broadly divided into a strict analytic tradition and a "neo-classical" pragmatism (such as Susan Haack) that adheres to the work of Peirce, James, and Dewey. Paper 48. Duran, J. Dewey was opposed to other ethical philosophies of his time, notably the emotivism of Alfred Ayer. The debate began when Patricia M. Shields introduced Dewey's notion of the Community of Inquiry. A worldview that favors objective knowledge albeit in limited windows will favor quantitative analysis. He defines a work of art as "a physically embodied, culturally emergent entity", a human "utterance" that isn't an ontological quirk but in line with other human activity and culture in general. [citation needed] Pragmatists criticized the former for its a priorism, and the latter because it takes correspondence as an unanalyzable fact. WebWhat is the difference between realism and pragmatism? The former, including Rorty, want to do away with the problem because they believe it's a pseudo-problem, whereas the latter believe that it is a meaningful empirical question. He held that while all three provide meaningful ways to think about moral questions, the possibility of conflict among the three elements cannot always be easily solved. Practice Periodical on Structural Design & Construction, 19(1), 50-56. An additional implication of this view is that ethics is a fallible undertaking because human beings are frequently unable to know what would satisfy them. The administrator's focus on "outcomes" simply advances their own interest, and this focus on outcomes often undermines their citizen's interests, which often are more concerned with process. Yet some research philosophers gear towards one certain type of facts. At paperdue.com, we provide students the tools they need to streamline their studying, researching, and writing tasks. The contradictions of real life are absent from it. There are different philosophies of the research such as positivism, realism, interpretivism and pragmatism and these belong to the research philosophy which is the first layer of the research onion (Sauder et al., 2009). (philosophy) The idea that beliefs are identified with the actions of a believer, and the truth of beliefs with success of those actions in securing a believer's goals; the doctrine that ideas must be looked at in terms of their practical effects and consequences. With a worldview can come personal bias, Cacamis, M. E., & El Asmar, M. (2014). 3.1.1 Positivism Critical theory originated in the Pragmatism has ties to process philosophy. [4] Its direction was determined by The Metaphysical Club members Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, and Chauncey Wright as well as John Dewey and George Herbert Mead. In this part it is also possible to argue within both positivist and interpretivist view. What is the difference between positivism and realism. Copyright 2023 . Lewis' own development of multiple modal logics is a case in point. Daniel Dennett, a student of Quine's, falls into this category, as does Stephen Toulmin, who arrived at his philosophical position via Wittgenstein, whom he calls "a pragmatist of a sophisticated kind". In this research study, among three philosophies such as: positivism, interpretivism and realism, the researcher will use the interpretivism philosophy. 9-1-2018 Abstract This study informs knowledge management (KM) research assessing the philosophical assumptions and paradigms that have formed around the discipline. They held that these philosophies then resorted either to a phenomenology inspired by Kant or to correspondence theories of knowledge and truth. One worldview that dominates today is that of positivism, especially with the arrival machine learning and algorithmic-driven analysis. one of the most important pragmatists of his time, Schiller is largely forgotten today. (politics) The theory that political problems should be met with practical solutions rather than ideological ones. (legal) A school of thought in jurisprudence in which the law is seen as separated from moral values, the law is. [92]:121 Elsewhere, in Russell's book The Analysis of Mind, Russell praised James's radical empiricism, to which Russell's own account of neutral monism was indebted. Thus, the statement, for example, that prayer is heard may work on a psychological level but (a) may not help to bring about the things you pray for (b) may be better explained by referring to its soothing effect than by claiming prayers are heard. [60] A debate that included responses from a practitioner,[61] an economist,[62] a planner,[63] other public administration scholars,[64][65] and noted philosophers[66][67] followed. Ontology degrees of reality. For Socrates, the sense, i.e. This is the heart of his pragmatism as a method of experimentational mental reflection arriving at conceptions in terms of conceivable confirmatory and disconfirmatory circumstancesa method hospitable to the generation of explanatory hypotheses, and conducive to the employment and improvement of verification. Personal and Traditional It often is seen as opposed to structural problems connected to the French critical theory of Pierre Bourdieu. Whipps, J.D. WebPragmatism is a philosophical tradition that considers words and thought as tools and instruments for prediction, problem solving, and action, and rejects the idea that the Defends a pragmatist form of contextualism against semantic varieties of contextualism in his, defends an epistemological conception of democratic politics that is explicitly opposed to, student of Wittgenstein, known especially for his. Shields, Patricia 2003. Peirce argued that there is no power of intuition in the sense of a cognition unconditioned by inference, and no power of introspection, intuitive or otherwise, and that awareness of an internal world is by hypothetical inference from external facts. The pragmatist insistence that all knowledge is tentative is quite congenial to the older skeptical tradition. Rortyan Pragmatism: 'Where's the beef' for public administration.". [5] Pragmatism is a philosophical tradition that considers words and thought as tools and instruments for prediction, problem solving, and action, and rejects the idea that the function of thought is to describe, represent, or mirror reality.Pragmatists contend that most philosophical topicssuch as the nature of knowledge, language, concepts, meaning, belief, and While pragmatism started simply as a criterion of meaning, it quickly expanded to become a full-fledged epistemology with wide-ranging implications for the entire philosophical field. Positivism deals with objectivity in scientific research. William James gives an interesting example of this philosophical shortcoming: [A young graduate] began by saying that he had always taken for granted that when you entered a philosophic classroom you had to open relations with a universe entirely distinct from the one you left behind you in the street. A pragmatist can consider something to be true without needing to confirm that it is universally true. Italian analytic and pragmatist philosopher. influential psychologist and theorist of religion as well as philosopher. Reviewing positivism, critical realism, interpretivism or constructivism, and pragmatism the researcher suggests to draw on constructivism to inform KM theory. As worldviews change, ideas on leadership subsequently changed with them, and gave ground to new ideas such as trait theory (Sanders, 2006; Stogdill, 1948; Cacamis & El Asmar, 2014). [13] and, in a 1908 publication,[14] his differences with James as well as literary author Giovanni Papini. Introspection and intuition were staple philosophical tools at least since Descartes. On the contrary, phenomenology is based on the premise that reality consists of objects and events, which will lead to 100 realities in 100 hundreds people eyes The word "pragmatic" has existed in English since the 1500s, a word borrowed from French and ultimately derived from Greek via Latin. Conceptual pragmatism is a theory of knowledge originating with the work of the philosopher and logician Clarence Irving Lewis. Quine's argument brings to mind Peirce's insistence that axioms are not a priori truths but synthetic statements. [17] At the same time he held persistently that pragmatism and epistemology in general could not be derived from principles of psychology understood as a special science:[18] what we do think is too different from what we should think; in his "Illustrations of the Logic of Science" series, Peirce formulated both pragmatism and principles of statistics as aspects of scientific method in general. What is the difference between pragmatism and Interpretivism? In the second half of the 20th century, Stephen Toulmin argued that the need to distinguish between reality and appearance only arises within an explanatory scheme and therefore that there is no point in asking what "ultimate reality" consists of. Typical of Peirce is his concern with inference to explanatory hypotheses as outside the usual foundational alternative between deductivist rationalism and inductivist empiricism, although he was a mathematical logician and a founder of statistics. The community of Inquiry: Classical Pragmatism and Public Administration." Part A: Positivism Vs Interpretivism. Administration & Society 37(3): 360374. It is a combination and positivism and interpretivism. 2004. Instrumentalism does not state that truth does not matter, but rather provides a specific answer to the question of what truth and falsity mean and how they function in science. Education and learning gained from it is meaningless if the individual cannot enjoy and optimize it to achieve his/her own needs and aspirations in life. [38] Late Rorty and Jrgen Habermas are closer to Continental thought. Italian essayist, mostly known because James occasionally mentioned him. From the outset, pragmatists wanted to reform philosophy and bring it more in line with the scientific method as they understood it. Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology. Hildebrand, David. Pragmatism and feminism: Reweaving the social fabric. [34], Dewey also criticized the dichotomy between means and ends which he saw as responsible for the degradation of our everyday working lives and education, both conceived as merely a means to an end. Other instances include the development of scientific management by Taylor (1914), the impact of culture on an organization, and how motivation plays a part in management (Maslow, 1943; Schein, 2017). How is servant leadership compatible with most religions and theories of philosophy? [77][78][79], The health sector's administrators' use of pragmatism has been criticized as incomplete in its pragmatism, however,[80] according to the classical pragmatists, knowledge is always shaped by human interests. The two were supposed, he said, to have so little to do with each other, that you could not possibly occupy your mind with them at the same time. Whilst positivist and interpretivist approaches are mutually exclusive, pragmatism is an approach that suggests that there Keith, H. (1999). Hypatia, 8. a leading authority on symbolic logic and on the philosophic concepts of knowledge and value. Radical empiricism, or Immediate Empiricism in Dewey's words, wants to give a place to meaning and value instead of explaining them away as subjective additions to a world of whizzing atoms. Then, your conception of those effects is the whole of your conception of the object."[1]. (1996). Many pragmatist ideas (especially those of Peirce) find a natural expression in the decision-theoretic reconstruction of epistemology pursued in the work of Isaac Levi. It therefore tries to interpret each notion by tracing its respective practical consequences; if there is no difference in the outcomes, a metaphysical dispute is futile (James 1995:18). John Shook has said, "Chauncey Wright also deserves considerable credit, for as both Peirce and James recall, it was Wright who demanded a phenomenalist and fallibilist empiricism as an alternative to rationalistic speculation."[10].

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